Effect Of Substrates On The Respiration Of Yeast Biology Essay

Effect Of Substrates On The Respiration Of Yeast Biology demonstrateThe aim of this investigation is to examine what effects antithetic substratums let on the respiration of barm. I will investigate this by bill the union of ascorbic acid dioxide evolved during anaerobic respiration.Pilot ExperimentBefore we could test which carbohydrate and type of barm dumbfoundd more carbon dioxide, we had to standardise the other variables of this experiment temperature and concentration. in that respectfore, in graze to find the optimum causes we carried bug out a pilot experiment. In this experiment we employ a range of temperatures from 10 to 60C and three varied concentrations of carbohydrate 1%, 5% and 10%. The experiment was carried out as a group experiment with every hotshot cosmos allocated a different temperature and concentration to test. It was carried out over a standardised period of 5 minutes. The rationale for conducting this pilot experiment was that enzymes be biological catalysts that atomic number 18 do up of globular proteins which are activated to organize by temperature. They exist in the yeast and our bodies and therefore work best at 40C, however, they denature soon after and so our body temperature is kept at 37C to ensure this does non happen. Denaturation is the irreversible loss of 3D structure of enzymes and stop be ca utilisationd by intemperance heat or a change in PH. According to the Collision theory however, in order for a reaction to take quad a certain level of energy, called the activation energy, must be r distributivelyed. This energy needs to be reached by the particles colliding in the right way and fast enough, so a reaction can take place. By giving the particles more energy it encourages more to collide therefore the activation energy can be reached and a reaction can happen. The kinetic theory explains the effect of temperature, volume and pressure on the number of collisions. The theory states that i f temperature is increased the particles gain more energy and there are more collisions in a given time. Similarly, increasing the concentration means than there is a higher chance of a collision happening because there are more particles in a given volume. If the concentration of carbohydrate/yeast is increased there are more enzymes known as zymase, scored. This means there are more active sets for the carbohydrate substratum to attach to and the reaction happens faster. Therefore a balance must be reached amid temperature so it does not denature the enzymes simply is high enough to activate a reaction. Also, having a highly concentrated tooth root is seemingly advantageous but this can cause osmotic problems, so another balance must be reached, as to avoid this problem, but not to discourage a reaction. weaponBeehive shelf Clamp Stand 50ml conical flaskTrough Clamp Thermometer50cm3 measuring piston chamber Heat proof sweep up Spill500ml beaker bunsen burner burner Delive ry pipework with bungTripod Gauze Stopwatch25cm3 of bakers yeast 25cm3 of sucrose Electronic weewee-bathMethod25cm3 of bakers yeast and 25 cm3 of sucrose was sashayed to catchher and preheated at the required temperature for 15 minutes in an electronic water-bath.400cm3 of water was preheated to the same temperature as the yeast using the Bunsen burner.The trough was filled with water and a measuring cylinder was inverted by filling it with water then pressing a piece of paper onto the top to prevent any convey bubbles from getting in.The beehive shelf was placed in the centre of the trough and the measuring cylinder was clamped in place, with the top resting on the beehive shelf, the hole being directly under it.The yeast was placed in the preheated water-bath and the bung from the delivery tube was replaced.The delivery tube was inserted into the hole in the side of the beehive shelf and the stop watch was started.Thirty seconds was timed then the beaker with the yeast/carbohy drate mix was swirled for 5 seconds to mix the yeast/carbohydrate.This was repeated every thirty seconds for cardinal minutes, with readings being taken at three five minute intervals.The correct temperature in the water bath was maintained by adding more hot water to it by means of and throughout the experiment.BACKGROUND INFORMATIONYEASTSaccharomyces cerevisiae, also known as yeast, is a micro organism that uses saprophytic digestion to break deal substrates. This is achieved through releasing specific enzymes to break trim down specific substrates, but if yeast does not contain a certain types of enzyme then it cannot break down its substrate. The more the enzyme of a particular substrate, the faster the rate of breakdown and therefore the more CO2 is produced. This will help me to test how much CO2 each substrate produces. Yeast can also respire aerobically and anerobically depending on the availability of O2. If there is plentiful of O2 then yeast would respire aerobically with sugars, producing H2O and CO2 as ache products. all the same, if no oxygen is available then the fermentation would occur which converts sugars into CO2 and ethanol.RESPIRATIONRespiration is the process by which energy is released energy from glucose in the carriage of Oxygen, forming carbon dioxide and water as waste products. Glucose releases energy in a series of reactions that take place inside components of the cell. The stages are briefly explained belowGLYCOLYSISTo get the sugar in a more reactive form it is produced to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate by the addition 2 phosphate molecules. This process is a phosphorylation reaction. The fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is then broken down into 2 molecules of glyceraldehydes-3-phosphate, which comprises of 3C each. The glyceraldehydes-3-phosphate converted into pyruvate via the oxidation process where each GAL3P molecule releases 2 atomic number 1 ions and 2 electrons. The electrons are then transferred to nicotinamide adenine di nucleotide to produce NADH (reduced NAD) and the energy is utilise to produce 4ATP from 4ADP and 4Pi. Finally there is a net yield of 2 molecules of ATP, and 2 molecules of pyruvate which is used in the link reaction and 2 molecules of reduced NAD which carries on to the link reaction.LINK REACTIONIn the link reaction the 2 molecules of pyruvate leave the cytoplasm of the cell and enter the mitochondrial matrix. This is an oxidation reaction where 2 NAD molecules oxidise 2 pyruvate molecules into 2 acid molecules. These 2 molecules of acetic acid then go on to combine with 2 coenzyme-A molecules to form acetyl group Co enzyme A. in the end of this stage 2 molecules of reduced NAD form, 2 molecules of CO2 is lost and most principal(prenominal)ly, Acetyl Co enzyme A is make through the conversion of pyruvate. This is then used in the next stage of respiration.KREBS CYCLEAt the start Acetyl Coenzyme A , combines with Citrate Synthase an enzyme as well up and a 4 carbon molecule ca lled oxaloacetate, forming Citrate. Then, Citrate goes through the process of oxidative decarboxylation which forms a 5 carbon molecule called oxoglutarate.at this point NADH is produced and CO2 is removed. In the latter stages of the krebs cycle, the oxoglutarate is changed into a 4 carbon oxaloacetate molecule. NADH is made and 1 molecule ATP is also made. The volume of CO2 that is produced in the krebs cycle is important as this is the dependant variable.ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAINIn this stage all of the NADH and FADH that has been produced in the previous stages is converted into ATP. This takes place in the cristae of the mitochondria. The NADH and FADH electrons move. When the electrons pass from one carrier to another, a series of reduction and oxidation reactions take place which releases energy in the process. This energy is used to pump H+ ions from the matrix into the intermembrane space, consequently creating a gradient where the concentration of the H+ ions in the interm embranal space is higher than it s in the matrix. The inner membrane contains enzymes called ATP Synthase and The H+ ions diffuse through these enzymes causing energy to be released which is used to synthesise ATP through phosphorylation. The process is called because the final terminal electron acceptor is oxygen which picks up the electrons from the chain and the H+ ion from the matrix to form H20 as a waste product. This reaction is catalysed by the enzyme Cytochrome OxidaseFor every NADH which enters the chain and is oxidised by NADH dehydrogenase, 3 ATP are produced. For each FADH that enters the chain, 2 molecules of ATP are made.ENZYMESEnzymes are proteins that can effectively increase the rate of a reaction by lowering the required energy (activation energy) call for in order for the reaction to occur. Enzymes reserve a tertiary structure which decides the shape of the active station. The substrate must be specific to the active site because if they were not complementary to each other, then the substrate can no pineer bind to the active site, thus the enzyme substrate complex does not form. The exertion of enzymes can be affected in several ways some of which I have explained below.TEMPERATUREAn increase in temperature will cause an increase in the rate of reaction because both the enzyme particles and substrate particles have gained kinetic energy. This will result in the particles to move faster, thus increasing collision frequency and the total of successful collisions as the particles have the required activation energy. If the temperature rises above the optimum temperature then the enzymes can become denatured. This happens because the enzyme molecule vibrates more causing the weak hydrogen bonds (holding the 3D structure of the enzyme together) to break. This eventually leads to the shape of the active site being altered. Consequently, the substrate will not be able to bind with the substrate as the shape of the active site is no longer c omplementary so the substrate enzyme complex can not form. This is important in my experiment because if the yeast (enzyme) was to become denatured then it would not be able to bind with the substrate (e.g. glucose) and the reaction would not be catalysed, preventing any CO2 from being formed. I must ensure that temperature is kept constant throughout.PHAnother factor which can affect enzymes is pH. Enzymes also have an optimum pH which is pH enzymes work best at. Changing the pH can change the tertiary structure due to the number of H+ ion in an acid or the OH- ions in an alkali. These ions fragmentize the hydrogen and ionic bonds between -NH2 and -COOH. This will cause the tertiary structure to break down and changing the active site in the process. Once again, the substrate will no longer be able to bind with the active site, hence no substrate enzyme complex will form. I intend to use a buffer solution which will resist any changes in pH.SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATIONIncreasing substr ate concentration increases enzyme activity as they are more molecules to occupy the active site, thus a faster reaction. If more enzyme substrate complex forms then more CO2 will be produced. However this is occurs only for a certain period until all the active sites are saturated with substrates. Therefore an increase in substrate concentration will not result in a increase in the rate of reaction. Carbohydrates such as glucose and sucrose are too soluble and reactive to be stored as they come as they would present osmotic problems and so they are stored in much more complex, insoluble structures known as polysaccharides. Polysaccharides are macromolecules formed by the joining of numerous monosaccharides together in condensation reactions. There can be more than 3000 repeating units in a chain, joined by glycosidic bonds, forming many complicated structures, one being starch. Starch is a polymer of alpha glucose, where the hydroxyl group is below the ring, and is made up of 30% amylose and 70% amylopectin. Amylose is a long polymer consisting of over 300 monomers joined by 1,4 glycosidic bonds. Amylopectin gives starch its compact store of energy property as it consists of monomers of glucose in 1,4 and 1,6 linkages causing the chain to branch out. Amylopectin can contain several thousand monomers and forms a coiled up structure which is a valuable store of energy for maintenance organisms. Starch is suited to memory board as it is insoluble in water and therefore cannot move out of the cells during osmosis. However, it can easily be broken down to produce simpler carbohydrates by a hydrolysis reaction via the enzyme zymase produced by yeast. It is broken down firstly into maltose then into glucose then into carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol.In this experiment we used both different types of the Saccharomyces Cerevisiae (saccharo meaning sugar and myces meaning fungus) sub- species of yeast to respire the carbohydrates bakers and brewers. Both are made u p of small cells, separated by walls of cellulose with a living organism inside called a protoplasm. Yeast cells reproduce by budding, and do so every two to three hours under ideal conditions. All types of yeast will respire carbohydrates to make energy in order to reproduce. Therefore, when sugar is added to the Brewers yeast, the yeast cells secrete the enzyme zymase to begin respiring the carbohydrate substrate according to the following comparabilityC6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6CO2 + 6H2O + 2900kJGlucose + Oxygen = coke + water + EnergydioxideThis is known as aerobic respiration due to the presence of oxygen, (defined as free or molecular oxygen atoms participating in the respiratory breakdown of organic substances). Brewers, however, are more interested in anaerobic respiration, (defined as when the respiratory breakdown of organic substrates takes place without the participation of free or molecular oxygen atoms). In yeast, anaerobic respiration is sometimes called fermentation. This h appens when the enzyme secreted by yeast, known as zymase, catalyses the break down of glucose to produce ethyl alcohol, in abundance and less carbon dioxide, (which they use to create the fizz). It happens that starch is broken down to form maltose, maltose is broken down into glucose and glucose breaks down according to either the aerobic or anaerobic respiration equation, depending on the conditions. Therefore, Brewers use anaerobic (airtight) conditions and most of the reaction happens according to this equationC6H12O6= 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + 84kJGlucose = Ethyl + Carbon + EnergyAlcohol dioxideThis produces the desired product i.e. the alcohol and the bi- product of carbon dioxide, which we collect in this experiment.The Bakers yeast is very similar to Brewers except it is used for a slightly different commercial purpose i.e. bread making. The yeast respires aerobically in this process as the main function is to inflate the dough to make it softer, and therefore, the desired product comes from the first equationC6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6CO2 + 6H2O + 2900kJGlucose + Oxygen = Carbon + water + EnergydioxideThe reaction also requires nitrogen from the air to act as a nucleating site for the carbon dioxide to form bubbles against and therefore produces a good yield of carbon dioxide.In most processes where yeast is used, it will have been cultivated to suit that purpose, e.g. to produce more carbon dioxide or more ethyl alcohol, therefore there will often be a big contrast between the behaviour of the two yeasts. We can test this in this experiment as the variable of the condition (whether it is in aerobic or anaerobic conditions) is being standardised by both the experiments being carried out in aerobic conditions. This is due to the fact that there is a good oxygen supply whilst the yeast is preheated and during accelerator collection, when the clay is air tight, it is not left long enough for it to use up the oxygen and respire anaerobically. This is a favourable cond ition for maximum CO2 exertion however as, according to the equation, there are six moles of CO2 produced aerobically and only two moles of gas produced anaerobically.AimThe aim of the pilot experiment is to investigate the optimum temperature and concentration of carbohydrate, that, when respired with yeast, produces the biggest volume of carbon dioxide.PLANNINGTHE DEPENDANT AND INDEPENDENT VARIABLEThe dependant variable will be the volume of C02 produced during respiration and the independent variable will be the substrates that I decide to use in the experiment. These are Glucose, Fructose, Maltose, Lactose and sucrose.NULL HYPOTHESISThe type of carbohydrate being respired will have no significant effect on the amount of carbon dioxide produced in a given time.HYPOTHESISIn accordance with the information that has been gathered, the following hypotheses were derived scheme one When respired by yeast, different types of carbohydrates will produce different amounts of CO2.I believ e this because glucose is a monosaccharide which consists of one molecule, sucrose is a disaccharide, which consists of two molecules and starch is a polysaccharide, consisting of many molecules. This means they all have different molecular structures and therefore will break down with different levels of ease. In order to limit an open mind however, the following null hypothesis was also notedNull hypothesis one The type of carbohydrate being respired will have no significant effect on the amount of carbon dioxide produced in a given time.The second hypothesis was theorised relating to the variable of the yeastHypothesis two Different types of yeast will produce different volumes of CO2.I predict this because the commercial purposes of Bakers and Brewers yeasts are different and therefore special cultivations might have made the yeast better designed for one purpose than the other. Again a null hypothesis was also adoptedNull hypothesis two There will be no significant difference between the amount of carbon dioxide produced by the Bakers and the Brewers yeast.ApparatusThe following apparatus will be used when conducting the experimentBeehive shelfTrough200cm3 measuring cylinder500ml beakerTripod25cm3 of bakers yeast25cm3 of brewers yeast25cm3 of sucrose25cm3 of glucose25cm3 of starchBunsen burnerGauzeHeat proof matRubber tubing50ml conical flaskThermometerSpillDelivery tube with bungStopwatchClampClamp standMETHOD25cm3 of the desired yeast and 25 cm3 of the desired carbohydrate was mixed together and preheated at the required temperature for 1 hour in an electronic water-bath.400cm3 of water was preheated to the same temperature as the yeast using the Bunsen burner.The trough was filled with water and a 200cm3 measuring cylinder was inverted by filling it with water then pressing a piece of paper onto the top to prevent any air bubbles from getting in.The beehive shelf was placed in the centre of the trough and the measuring cylinder was clamped in place, w ith the top resting on the beehive shelf, the hole being directly under it.A small piece of rubber tubing was inserted into the beehive shelf through the hole in the side, up into the inverted cylinder, and the other end was attached to the delivery tube.The yeast was placed in the preheated water-bath and the bung from the delivery tube was replaced.The delivery tube was inserted into the hole in the side of the beehive shelf and the stop watch was started.Thirty seconds was timed then the beaker with the yeast/carbohydrate mix was swirled for 5 seconds to mix the yeast/carbohydrate.This was repeated every thirty seconds for fifteen minutes, with readings being taken at three five minute intervals.The correct temperature in the water bath was maintained by adding more hot water to it throughout the experiment.This was repeated using each different type of sugar with each different type of yeast Bakers glucose, Bakers sucrose, Bakers starch, Brewers glucose, Brewers sucrose, Brewers starch.Control of the variables of the methodIn order for this experiment to be run fairly there are certain controls that should be taken into consideration-The temperature must be kept constant by refilling the water bath with warm water.-The yeast/carbohydrate solution should be pre-mixed and preheated for the same amount of time i.e. one hour, in each experiment.-The gas should be collected at three 5 minute intervals for each condition.-The solution should be swirled every thirty seconds for five seconds to mix the yeast and carbohydrate together.-The temperature and concentration should be the same for each experiment 35C and 7.5% respectively.-The amount of yeast to carbohydrate should be kept constant i.e. 25cm3 of each.-The same method should be used the rubber tube,collection of gas in an inverted measuring cylinder, as certain ways are more accurate than others.Control of the measurementsWhen taking measurements, the following points should be noted-When measuring the ga s, measure to the bottom of the semilunar cartilage of the water.-Make sure the measuring cylinder is perpendicular to the clamp stand to ensure that the water lies at the correct level.-When timing, do not shake at 30 seconds by the stopwatch because 5 seconds is added on each time (while it is shaken) and therefore by the sixth minute or so it will require vibration as soon as it has been shaken.-Keep a constant check on the thermometer to ensure the temperature does not drop.ResultsA summary carry over to show volume of gas produced by bakers and brewers yeast with three different carbohydrate substratesAmount of CO2 produced in cm3 in fifteen minutes in each conditionThe table above shows the results of our practical, including my own, highlighted in blue. The average volume of gas collected in each separate condition is shown and reveals that most gas was produced in the brewers glucose experiment, at 115.6 cm3 and the condition that produced the lowest average was brewers s tarch, at 9.4. The range of the averages was 94.3, showing there was a large difference between the values.Analysis of the resultsThe graph above clearly shows the difference between the three carbohydrate substrates to be significant. It is clear that the order for most CO2 produced is glucose, sucrose, starch, the greatest difference being between sucrose and starch. It also appears that the results are closer together for bakers yeast than for brewers. The average for bakers yeast was slightly higher at 74cm3 than the Brewers at 71.2cm3.Students T testThe descriptive statistics above, however, only tell us what has been found, they do not tell us the probability of achieving the scores we did, and therefore an inferential students t test was applied. The students t test was devised to analyse smaller sets of samples to go steady whether the results were due to chance or the manipulation of the independent variable. It works out that if the difference between the variance of the sum of the two means (of the two samples) is great than twice the standard deviation of the difference between the means (of the two samples) then this is unlikely to have of occurred by chance, and therefore our data is significant.Glucose v Sucrose bakerst-Test Two-Sample Assuming Equal VariancesVariable 1Variable 2Mean103.666793.25641Variance927.0702595.5641Observations3939Pooled Variance761.3171Hypothesized Mean Difference0df76t Stat1.66608P(T

Business overview of McDonalds and analysis

Business overview of McDonalds and depth psychologyThe UK fast food foodstuff is worth an estimated 7.82 billion annu totallyy (Keynote, 2003), amounting to an average spend 20/month per prominent (Mcdonald, 2003). Due to busier consumer lifestyles and dual working families with children emphasis is increasingly being placed on quick meal solutions (Atkins and Bowler, 2001). This has resulted in a market growth of 19% in fast food since 1998. As the business has spread globally giant fast food companies adapted their business st countgy as well. It has enclotheed specie on research and development to strengthen their managing policies. Recently legion(predicate) researchers feature shown interest regarding implementing swop in instruction system of the fast food industry. They puddle carried out numerous observations to illuminate the darkness of this field.As the literature review helps to frame the initial focus of the study, well as to focus the data analysis (Swanson Ho lton1997). It also helps researchers to limit the scope of their inquiry and acts as a benchmark for comparison purposes. In this literature review, their findings and suggestions atomic number 18 sincerely considered for further steps of the research. accord to Creswell (2003) literature reviews provide a framework for establishing the importance of the study.2.1 An overview of McDonaldsIn the world of globalisation the fast food business is the most dynamic and growth orientated business. McDonalds is one of the most thriving global restaurant chains around the world. McDonalds have used issuanceive global expansion strategies to enter overb gray-haired markets and pass a share of the foreign fast food market. Now McDonalds is a global scale brand. Since the start of the comp either in 1973, McDonalds Corporation began spreading domestically throughout the United States thus establishing its brand recognition. Its initial strategy began by advertising directly to the middle and upper class citizens, as can be seen in countries such(prenominal) as India and China. To meet the challenge and maintain the success McDonalds has, they had adopt may assortments in their strategy, management, and operation accomplish.The focus of the research is to reveal the elements of defense in the watercourse trans come in management system both in practice and theory in MacDonalds. This chapter is organized according to the various components of resistance to shift and reducing resistance with the help of human race imaging strategies of the organic law.In England first gear McDonald was opened 1974 at Woolwich Southeast Station. In 35 years 1250 restaurants have r to each one(prenominal)ed by end of 2005 most of the traditional lofty streets, shopping centres, retail parks, roadside locations, leisure centres, railway and airport terminal and motorway service areas (Official website). They have assorted types of depot like 24hrs, take away only, super stor e in Retail Park. There is no particular up-to-date information well-nigh how umpteen superstore, take-a-way or airport as well as franchise restaurant in London or in specific area in UK. may be this information is only for top level management, not available for general people. New store is open e truly year, also some store has been relocated or correct close for business insurance. MacDonalds also spread its franchise business all over the world mainly in Asia. Asia is very attractive business market for McDonalds. Its now common to see MacDonalds drive to logo in many Asian major cities. Recession is also touch on the fast food industry but this situation is improving day by day. Many bracing menus are including attracting much customers. MacDonalds also develop policy for healthy fast food policy so campaigners cannot blame them continuously which influence general public to have MacDonalds food.2.2. channeliseMcDonalds has adopted many strategic and operational altern ates during its business cycle .Organizational theorists like Drucker (1995) stated transpose is a constant in all contexts. Change can be defined from an establishmental development perspective.Pendlebury, J. et al (1998) demonstrated assortment as troublesome to organizations, and it is quite disruptive to the individual. The effect of alteration on individuals is significant. In many respects, it is the emotional attribute of resistance that must(prenominal) be managed throughout the life of the change event. Vigorous emotions can be removed through the process of change within organizations. In fact, scholars beg that every act or event of change go out draw some type of resistance resistance that result clear itself in emotions such as fear and anger, denial, avoidance, and resistance. Change can be so disturbing that even individuals directly unaffected by a change green light can be affected through survivor guilt. According to Noer (1997) survivor guilt or sickness may be experienced by individuals indirectly affected by change and may serve as a significant source of resistance for individuals.2.2.1. Forces of changeChange depends on two hales, which could be external and internal forces. If managers, employees or organisations think virtually these forces, than they can implement on change successfully. The forces for change areInternal Forces benignant resource prospects (Unmet fills, phone line dissatisfaction, Absenteeism and staff turnover Productivity Participation) Managerial lasts.Managerial decisions (Conflict, Leadership, Reward system, Structural reorganisation) the trains for the change. (Bullens, et al 2006).External ForcesChange is initiated via external sources such as heathenish and political computes. In short, additional external factors like globalizing markets, technology, politics, and communications are all sources of change (Nadler, 1997).Social ChangeThere is lots of pressure from many health concern organis ations, doctors association, consumer association even government health institution for the food type and food value of McDonalds restaurant. Many scientific statistics has been published on disparate media just about the quality and nutrition value of Macs food. Even UN organisation W.H.O (World Health Organisation) also comments negatively against fast food. Macs mainly targeted customers are children and teenagers rather original and elderly people. McDonalds always face different social challenge from internal as well as external sources. But they try to maintain highest thinkable hygiene and safe way to make and serve the food as well as plan to mention the food values for each concomitant which help all the consumers to know the nutrition value of the food.Technological ChangeTechnological change in the organisation is critical, for three primary reasons.1- Competitors use technology as part of major success strategies.2- Technology driven is everywhere and always presen t.3- Value capture from new technology is challenging and never guaranteed. witness Ettlie,J (2000)Most of the time, we hold technology as a constant, because its convenient. The more change in technology of products, services, and operations, the more change in administrative procedures, new strategies, new organisational structures, and new operating procedures leave be required to successfully capture the potential benefits of the venture. The failure of technological change typically occurs when either too much(prenominal) technology is adopted too quickly or not enough technology is adopted to stay ahead of competitors.Nadler (1997) argue strongly for the skid of new technologies and new markets. Jick (1995) identifies competition and the aspirations to gain and maintain competitive advantage a key Impetus for change.Economical ChangeMcDonalds has the tendency to experience hardship in instances where the economy of the country is hit by inflation and changes in the exchange rates. **The current recession also put them struggling. The high store maintenance make up in major cities like London, New York, Tokyo etc. is very expensive. For the recession people try to eat home to save money even MacDonalds offers food is the cheapest than early(a) competitors. The low sales impact on store profit which also related to all kind of necessary expenditure. An another(prenominal) factor is the maintaining the food preparation and service standard for MacDonalds food which is prime concern for them to establish the hygiene and safety issue for the people health. If MacDonalds charge high terms of their food to maintain store standard they will definitely loose target customer and most valuable reputation. Still they are in market leader position. Economical chance has great influence on MacDonalds business.Political ChangeGovernment can implement some bindings on the advertisement of McDonalds because of the high cholesterol, obesity and some other health pro blem. They also control the licence as we mentioned earlier in social change that MacDonalds have many legal bindings from different level of government and non-government organisation. Political change of a country has also affect MacDonalds business. As health issue is one of the prime concerns of the various(prenominal) government, if any political change occurs the health policy can also change. The very practical example in UK conservative government will change the health policy of the previous labour government. MacDonalds must track the relevant information by which their business can be affected. In other case marketing can also affected by political change. Sometimes, social crisis influence to raise the public issue politically. Like obesity in the westbound world is an important discussion topic in heath area. Government regulates the advertising to focus this concern so that people awareness will increases about the obesity. MacDonalds must accommodate with this poli cy in all its marketing campaigns.CultureCulture examines societys values, norms, believes, symbols. Organisational culture, is the concept to analyse that the organisation can be very reusable for focusing on the more demeanoural and attitudinal aspects of the organisational life. Organisational culture is the social aspects of our employing organisations. Scheins (1985) developed the following typology for heathen analysisThe organisations relationship to its environment (belief that relate to the broader environment)The temper of the human activity (beliefs about what the core activity of the business should be)The nature of the reality and truthThe nature of human nature (beliefs about what people are like)The nature of human relationships (beliefs are about how people should relate to one another both hierarchically and horizontally)Homogeneity versus diversity (beliefs about similar or diverse the workforce should be) (Ellis Dick 2003).According to Schein (2004) culture change certainly involves unlearning as well as relearning and is therefore, by definition, transformative thus Schein (2004) also suggested learning leaders must be well connected to those parts of the organization that are themselves well connected to the environment-the sales organization, purchasing, marketing, public relations, legal, finance, and RD must be able to listen to negatively charged information coming from these sources and to assess the implications for the future of the organization.The Wider EnvironmentSocial ValuesDemographicsTask Environment Customers and marketsEconomyTechnologySuppliers of InputsCompetitorsFor marketsFor resourcesRegulatory groupsThe FirmProcess actorive roleWhat is done (task)How things are done (technology)People factorsWorkforce diversityWorkforceBehaviourFigure 2.1 Triggers to change. Corlett,Forster, (2004),2.3. Theories of change managementThere are many change poses that are used to aid experts in implementing change. These models can be broken down into two types of change theories that organizations can use extremist and incremental. Within each of these approaches there are various models and processes.2.3.1 Radical vs Incremental changeRadical change approaches include, but are not limited to, six sigma, quality make deployment, and re-engineering. Radical change models are used to jump-start an organization and are also used when a culture change is required. In 1994, Dyer pardon radical change , In a conventionally Midwestern family business atmosphere, change is likely to be more heavily resisted than in other organizations because the feelings adjacent to the change tend to be deeper and more intense, and previous research shows that family values, goals, and relations deeply influence strategic change in family-oriented firms . A review of the literature Senge (1990) reflects the drive for organizations to be able to continuously adjust as well as to allow for learning to take place. Incremental change approaches include, but are not limited to, Kurt Lewins model, Beckhards change model, Kotters transformation model, and the Bridges transition model.Incremental change models are related with improving the existing system and operate within the current business model. All these models have a exemplify of unfreezing of the current behavior, a change being introduced, and a stage of refreezing the new behavior, or else they begin with the designation of the current state, the desired state, and the blocks and barriers that exist amid the two.Cummings and Worley, (2001) state that Kurt Lewins three-stage change model is the root of change management. Lewins change model consisting of the following steps 1) unfreezing the old behaviour (or situation), 2) moving to a new level of behaviour, and 3) refreezing, the behaviour at the new level. Lewin viewed the change process as a fundamental alteration or change in the forces that kept a system in stasis. According to Lewin, an o rganization will go through the process of making preparations for change, developing the force for change, implementing change, and then will strive to re-establish stability or reach stasis.UnfreezeChangeRefreezeFigure 2.2 Kurt Lewins three-stage change model of change.Adopted from Cummings and Worley, (2001)According to van de Ven and Poole (1995) Organizational change is an empirical observation in an organizational entity of variations in shape, quality or state over time.Kaestle (1990) states in A New precept for Organizational Structure, that there are fundamentally two drivers for organizational change 1) a dynamic marketplace and, 2) information technology.2.3.2 Conditions for changeAccording to Kotter (1996) certain conditions need to be met in order to bring about effective change. These conditions on what is known to contribute to the failure of change efforts.2.3.3 People involved in changeKotter also states that producing change is about 80% leadership (establishing direction, aligning, and motivating and inspiring people) and about 20% management (planning, budgeting, organizing, and problem-solving). In most change efforts he has studied, the percentages have been reversed. While there are some examples of successful change efforts, so leadership or management kit and boodle as a change agent within the organization.According to Vago (1999) in a planned change effort, change agents are professionals who influence and implement the change they are critical to the success of a change effort.Recent studies indicate that static change models are being replaced with dynamic change models that reflect the discontinuous nature of organizational change. In other words, change does not occur at a steady rate even though in the onetime(prenominal) organizational theory has written about steady or static models.2.3.4 People in changeSchein (2004) also suggested learning leaders must be well connected to those parts of the organization that are themsel ves well connected to the environment-the sales organization, purchasing, marketing, public relations, legal, finance, and RD must be able to listen to disconfirming information coming from these sources and to assess the implications for the future of the organization.2.3.5. The red-brick version of Lewins theoryNeito (2006) described the graceful tools of Lewins theory is the critical analysis if it is to be helpful to HR professionals. To start by means of, it is affective and how roaring to get the agreement of employees regarding a change process. Even though if the change is important, but people will not accept the change easily, thats way the first stage Unfreezing takes more time rather than other stages. Next process is Change, this process will be by itself, but this process should be managed properly. If this process is managed properly there are incentives and benefits (easy wins) during the change process, end of the day this process will give the positive deem.Fina lly, the last stage is Refreezing which is a process of that stabilizes the change, which has been done.Human resource strategies are influenced by external and internal factors. Change successful depends on the concern and growth on the employee relations and interpersonal relationships. Human resource professionals should consider the change processes are likely to meet resistance and that is more efficient to consult with staff and expand teamwork than to oblige changes. Present workers should therefore invest in special development to enhance their long term employability.(Neito,M 2006)To understand the process and the nature of change in the organization, it is important to understand how organization works in the complex environment of external and internal forces.According to Hayes. J (2007) open structure theory predicts that changes to any one of the internal and external elements of an organisations will source changes to other fundamentals. Hayes. J (2007) adopts from Kot ter (1980) the integrative model of organisational dynamics.Recent theorists have considered change according to developmental change, transitional change, and transformational change (Anderson Ackerman-Anderson, 2001).The six main elements in Kotters model areExternal environment, establish on the direct task related environment and the wider environment (which includes the political system, economical system etc).Employees and other apparent assets, as well as building cash and all other stuff and inventories. perfunctory organisational arrangements which system is operating and job designSocial system, which is based on organisations culture and social structure.Technology is the main product of the organisation.Dominant coalition Goals, strategies of those who control to make the plane.According to Hayes.J (2007) adaptability is very important because it determines whether the organisation will be able or not to maintain the require degree of alignment over the long period. F or the long period, the main purpose of change management needs to be ensuring, that the structural basics of the organisation are as adaptable.Key organisational processesInformation gatheringCommunicationDecision makingMatter thrust transportationMatter energy conversionFormal organisationalDominant coalitionExternal environmentTechnology, methodsSocial system cultureEmployees and tangibleaaaa assetsSource of potential behaviour and constraintImpact onFigure 2.4Source Hayes,J.(2007) The theory and Practice of Change Management ,2nd ed, p-47, palgrave Macmillan.2.3.6. Force Field slitForce Field Tool is the pioneer tool for change management the tool was developed by Kurt Lewin. Schein (2002) explain Kurt Lewin tool, how change is influenced by two opposing factors private road and restraining forces that work against each other to sustain a state of stability .At the same time as driving forces uphold change, restraining forces resist the driving forces and thus hold confirm c hange. When these forces are balanced, a state of quasi-stationary equilibrium is achieved.EquilibriumDriving forces(Restraining forcesFigure2.3 Lewins Force Field TheoryThe term quasi-stationary equilibrium was used by Schein (2002) to describe the abiding routine of day-to-day activity, rather than just equilibrium which implies a state of rest . According to Schein (2002) Any living system is always in a state of some change (growth, metamorphosis, or decline), but all systems are homeostatic in that they always tend toward some kind of equilibrium (p. 35). To explain the quasi-stationary state, Lewin used the analogy of a river flowing at the same velocity and direction over time. Although the river is not at rest, it flows consistently at the same rate and thus is stable. A shift in velocity or direction, however, would constitute a change.To bring about change, either driving forces need to be added or restraining forces must be diminished. According to Schein (2002) adding m ore driving forces is likely to be paralleled by higher aggressiveness, higher emotionality, and lower constructiveness than if restraining forces were reduced therefore, the latter is a more desirable course of action. In addition, adding driving forces is likely to result in new restraining forces as people try to maintain a state of quasi-stationary equilibrium. In this study, force field theory provided the theoretical framework for the variable of resistance to change in that it posited the tendency for groups to maintain a state of stability with restraining forces (i.e. resistance) resulting when driving forces that promote change are introduced.2.3.7. A congruence model of organisationsA substitute open system model, planned by Nadler and Tushman (1982) point out the effect of the congruency of the elements of the organisation, and shows the effectiveness on the organisation. Additionally, it puts more pressure, on the role of strategy, because any organisation based on the strategy as well. Congruence model depends on the quadruple classes of inputEnvironmentEnvironment as well as based on wider culture, within which the organisation operates, thats the backbone of the organisation. Environment is a part of fiscal institutions, supplies, markets and it is the overall system of the organisation, which is based on the external and internal environment of the organisation. Environment provides the strength and opportunities that the organisation has to compete with.ResourcesResources like as raw material, limpid capital, labour, technologies.History History is very important for the organisation, because past strategic decisions and development of central part values and patterns of leadership can affect the present model of organisation.StrategyThis input gives the direction how the organisations resources can be used to be the advantage in relation to the opportunities, and demands of the environment. Successful organisations are those that are able to support themselves with the help of external environment and move themselves to take advantage of any environmental changes.Nadler and Tushman (1982) argue that strategy defines the task of the organisation. Strategy is effective to the organisations behavioural system. They urge on that the goals of strategy measure the organisations performance.Nadler and Tushman(1982) define the major components of the transformation process asa- Task, can be viewed in terms of obstacle, predictability, interdependence a skill demands.b- respective(prenominal)s, those are the members of the organisation and their reaction capabilities, intelligence, experience, training, skills, attitudes, expectations etc.c- Formal organisational performance that include all the mechanisms used by the organisation to direct, control behaviour or formation.d- In conventional organisation, as well as casual group structures, the quality of inter-group relations, political processes, etc.Transformation proces sxInformal organisationIndividualTaskFormal organisationOrganisationGroup,IndividualEnvironmentResources,HistoryInputsOutputsStrategyFeedbackFigure 2.5Source Hayes,J.(2007) The theory and Practice of Change Management 2nd ed, p-52,palgrave Macmillan.Like Kotter, Nadler and Tushman argue that any useful model of organisations must go beyond only providing a simple sketch of the tools of the organisation and consider the dynamic relationships that exist between the various tools. They define congruence as the degree to those the needs, goals, objectives and structures of any one tool of the organisation are reliable with the needs. Their general theory is that, other things equal, the great the total degree of congruence between the different tools the more efficient will be the organisations behaviour. Figure 2.5 summarises the congruence model and the bold double headed arrows pose the six fits between the components of the transformation process (the internal organisation)These a re(a) Individual Formal organisations for example to what extents are individual needs met by the formal organisational arrangements?(b) Individual Task for example, to what extent do individuals have the skills required to meet task demands and to what extent do the tasks satisfy individual needs?(c) Individual informal organisation for example, to what extent does the informal organisation satisfy the needs of individuals or make best use of their talents?(d) Task formal organisation for example, to what level are the formal organisational arrangements enough to meet the demands of the task?(e) Task informal organisation for example, to what point does the informal organisation make sure to task performance?(f) Formal informal organisation for example, to what level are the goals, rewards and structures of the informal organisation reliable with those of the formal organisation?Mostly tools that Nadler and Tushman desire to focus on are different to those that figure in kott ers model. All models are overview of the real world, and the usefulness of the particular model, in the context of the change management. Schneider state in the book of john Hayes, Internal and external alignment promotes organisational effectiveness because the various elements of the system strengthen rather than upset each other, thereby minimising the loss of system energy and resources.2.4. Defining resistance to changeResistance to change is not rigorously related to organizations management and leadership. It is a problem embedded in the very nature of its organizational members. In any case, resistance to change is a significant factor that must be understood in the organizational context. Examples of resistance may include, refusal to work, riots (in extreme cases). On the other hand the employees can demonstrate contentment with change, a happier performance at work and a general consensus that the change was beneficial to the restaurant. Individuals can arrive at a psych ological state where major change can no longer be absorbed. According to psychologists, change can trigger emotional experiences such as depression, mania, irritability, anger, disturbing or obsessive thoughts.According to Conner (1998) the main sources of individual resistance to change are lack of trust, commitment to the status quo, belief that the change is not feasible, economic threats, relative high be, loss of status and power, and threats to values and ideals.Tushman and OReilly (1997), state that despite the inevitability of change and its necessity for survival, it presents serious dilemmas to anyone serious about the notion of change. Change is disruptive to organizations. That is undeniable. Change is not helpful to an environment of stability it precipitates more and more disruption wooing business leaders to a critical deadlock. One cannot have both stability and change they are conflicting forces.Pascal, R et el (1997), state, findings from surveys confirm that exe cutives have begun to give renewal a high priority.however, most of their efforts to achieve it have met with frustration partly because large organizations have such a remarkable capacity to resist change of all kinds.2.4.1. Sources of resistance in the implementation stageAccording to Klein and Sorra (1996) implementation of any change in the organization is the significant step between the decision to change and the regular use of it at the organization. In implementation stage more resistance groups can be found. The main resistance is with political and cultural locks to change. It consists ofImplementation climate and relation between change values and organizational values, considering that a strong implementation climate when the values relation is negative will result in resistance and opposition to change and forgetfulness of the social dimension of changes ( Schalk et al., 1998).Last but not least, a set of five sources of resistance with different characteristics are ac cording to Rumelt (1995) leadership inaction, sometimes because leaders are afraid of uncertainty, sometimes for fear of changing the status quo embedded routines collective action problems, oddly dealing with the difficulty to decide who is going to move first or how to deal with free-extruders ,ask of the necessary capabilities to implement change capabilities gap and cynicism.2.4.2. Sources of resistance in the look stage of changeTo understand resistance in the process of change in any organization, we need to focuses on the very fast formulation stage of change.It includes inability of the company to look into the future with clarity. According to Morrison and Milliken (2000) organizational silence, which limits the information flow with individuals who do not express their thoughts, meaning that decisions are made without all the necessary information. Denial or refusal to accept any information that is not expected or desired ( Rumelt, 1995).Low motivation for change, sour ces areDirect costs of change, is the cost of change that brings success to a product but at the same time brings losses to others, so it requires some sort of sacrifice. According to Rumelt (1995) the need for a change is compensated through the high rents obtained without change with another different factor, so that there is no real motivation for change.According to Lorenzo (2000) past failures, leave a pessimistic image for future changes. Waddell and Sohal (1998) identified different interests among employees and management, or lack of motivation of employees who value change results less than managers value them).2.5. Kotter and Schlesingers Choosing StrategiesChoosing Strategies for Change an article of Kotter and Schlesingers (1979) explain causes for resistance to change. Organizations frequently experience employees resistance when change is introduced.

Analysis of Classical Economist Theories

Analysis of Classical Economist TheoriesYashwardhan BanthiaDo the unequivocal economists constitute a coherent shoal of thought in the report of economics, or are they rather a loose grouping of writers whose differences are more salient than what they have in common?AbstractThis paper will debate the epitome of capital accruement, income distribution and technological progress expounded by major classical economists, David Ricardo, transport metalworker and Karl Marx. Detailed arguments on smiths views on division of tote, Ricardos investigation of using the patience theory to replace machines and Marxs theories of capitalism and his version of Ricardos analysis will be explained. It will finally be concluded that classical economists constitute a coherent discipline of thought, whose philosophies are more similar than different.IntroductionThe classical school of thought has always placed a great amount of emphasis on the analysis of economic growth. The question asks t he reader whether the theories and philosophies of the classical writers were logical and self-consistent with regard to the economic behavior, or if they were simply writers whose ideas were rather dissimilar to that of their compatriots.The paper would critically discuss the ideologies and theories implemented by classical economists, with particular focus on the effect of the various forms of technological change that have major insinuations on the income distribution amongst rent, wages and profits.The comp hotshotnts of this paper are as mentions Section 2 highlights Adam Smiths approach to this issue of technological change where the argument pivots around his views on division of moil and its components. Section 3 reviews David Ricardos comment of the labor theory of place and his response to technical change which would feature chapter XXXI, On Machinery, which is newly added as seen in the third edition of the Principles. Section 4 studies the views of Karl Marx, where his hypothesis on the entire composition of capital is examined closely in relation to the theory proposed by Ricardo. The sections are not just limited to these particular(prenominal) writers, other classical economists are discussed in the capacity of the aforesaid philosophies as and where applicable. Following this is a final section that concludes.Adam Smith Division of laborAt the very beginning of The Wealth of Nations, Smith, in his Introduction and Plan of Work maintains that a nations cordial product (taking into account the social product minus the workers consumption) is measured by the skill, dexterity, and judgment with which the labor is generally applied. A primitive feature of his study, Smith considers an investigation of the reasons due to which the productiveness of workers would enlarge (Smith, WN I.3-4).Smiths perception of the concept of division of labor was extremely wide it covered many characteristics and varying forms of technological change. Princi pally although, Smith accredited the division of labor to the influence of three essential elements that led to an increase in productivity. Firstly, specialization helped workers hone their skills and become defter as a result. Secondly, a lot time is saved as there is no shift from one activity to another and there is better utilization of resources. Lastly, arduous and colonial labor processes would be replaced by powerful machines through innovation, i.e., replacing labor with machines.A careful study of Smiths analysis of division of labor further clarifies Smiths ideas as can be seen in the first three chapters of the first book of The Wealth of Nations. In chapter one for instance, Smith distinctly conveys how effective a device, division of labor is in terms of increasing productivity. He then goes on to say in chapter two, that it is a rude(a) human tendency to truck, barter and exchange one thing for another, which appear to be entrenched in faculties of reason and speec h, which further provides exculpation to division of labor (Smith, WN I.ii.1-2). The argument is then completed in chapter three where Smith emphasizes the fact that the market limits the division of labor a larger division of labor is gene positiond by a larger market and thus, larger productivity is generated between firms as a result. While the markets are expanded by accumulation of capital, Smiths study emphasizes on the determinants of the latter.Consequently, there has been a lot of debate on whether Smiths views on division of labor, income distribution and his analysis of accumulation were consistent. I believe that technological progress was not viewed by Smith as boon, which was indisputably valuable to all classes of society. However, sections three and four would discuss Ricardo and Marx, and their views and criticisms on elements of Smiths theories.David Ricardo Labor theory of value and technological changesBefore we discuss Ricardos views on the implications of te chnological change and its effects on income distribution and capital accumulation, his fundamental law of income distribution must first be defined an inverse correlation between wages and the general rate of profit. He said that the rate of profits would be smaller if a large proportion of what the labor produces is given to him and vice-versa (Ricardo, Works VIII 194). He was real of the fact that technological change was an integral component in terms of the developing the modern society and that different effects would be experienced as a result of different forms of change. He was the first economist to have officially defined labor theory of value and thus, his work was considered to be the good turn point in the history of the classical school of thought.This is because he reflected upon numerous scenarios in order to arrive at a broad range of consequences that could be an aftermath of technological change. He argued on one particular case regarding a production unit that was completely automated and rightly pointed out that in a case where all the work is done by machinery, there will be no demand for labor. Furthermore, he discussed that nobody despite capitalists would be able to consume commodities or even buy or rent a machine. (Ricardo, Works VIII 399-400). Surprisingly, the most important technological change unremarkably associated with Ricardo is however, the problem of machinery. He further went on to assert that the introduction of new machines into the agreement of production can finally lead a redundancy of workers. This was posterior defined as technological unemploymentFollowing this, Ricardo withdraws his previous views on machinery in his third edition of the Principles, 1821, in which he states that the application of machinery to any branch of production, as should have the effect of saving labor, was a general good, accompanied only with that portion of inconvenience which in most cases attends the removal of capital and labor from one employment to another (Ricardo, Works I 386). Ricardo was however convinced that Says law, could not in every case, avert the redundancy of workers (Ricardo, Works I 290). He the rightly corrected himself by stating that he was convinced that using machinery in place of labor was injurious to the interests of the labors.(Ricardo, Works I 388).On the contrary, I strongly support his idea that it is possible without reducing profits, that advanced and improved machines reduced the amount of labor required for production purposes. Labor productivity would increase however as the machines decrease the sacrifice of labor (Ricardo, Works IV 397). However, on a final note on Ricardo, it must be mentioned that Ricardo, as a classical economist had a very deep understanding regarding of labor theory of value. Marxs version of this idea would be discussed next.Karl Marx Capitalism and labor theory of valueMarx adopted Ricardos labor theory of value and inculcated some changes of hi s own. He extended Ricardos theory by defining value to be the product of all socially expended labor which was needed, thus suggesting that apart from direct labor, labor used by to create the product was likewise factored into value. Marx close special praise for Ricardos scientific impartiality and love of truth (Marx 1954 412) and the honesty which so essentially distinguishes him from vulgar economists (Marx 1969 555).On closer inspection, it can be observed in Marxs volume III of Capital, part three specifically, where he appraises Ricardos views on effects of technological change and the labor theory. In such a way, this problem of technological change was Marxs attention of focus of attention in his scrutiny of capitalism. However, Marx insisted that this problem must be examined on a regular basis within the framework of a circular flow of production as he had established in his second volume of Capital.Furthermore, Marx view was that every symbolize and line of productio n required constant capital. The important underlying implication is that maximum level of profit in such a system would be finite. These levels of profit would be determined by what Marx coined as the organic composition of capital and would have an upper limit. His study led him to the conclusion that if this organic composition of capital falls (rises) during the time period where there is capital accumulation and changes in technology whilst assuming that wages remain constant, then, it must follow that that the actual rate of profit will fall. As a reader, I am almost compelled to think that Ricardos views and ideas have had a strong stir on Marx, as is exhibited by his statements.Likewise, Marx inspected Ricardos theories with utmost care, correcting the latters theories in some cases, but most evidently absorbing what he reflected to be thorough into his framework. For instance, Marx asserted that when the organic composition of capital rises, it is inevitably the case that the general rate of profits may fall given the fact that the surfeit value would be constant, which is contrary to Ricardos principle. Another such example could be Marxs relative over-population theory (Marx 1959 249-251) or a reserve regular army of the unemployed. Marx proclaims that the redundant workers cannot be expected to be hired back by factories that utilize machines because of the labor saving trait of the machines. A downward air pressure is thus exerted by this reserve army.To Marx and capitalism, what mattered is not saving in living labor in general, however a saving in the paid portion of living labor (Marx 1959262). The evidence is unmistakable I believe that it serves to show how intricately close the writings of Ricardo and Marx were also the fact that Marx was coherent in exhibiting his theories, and comprehensive in portraying his thoughts which has served its purpose in the history of economic thought.ConclusionThis probe shows how major classical economis ts consist of a coherent school of thought through their philosophies and theories that still continue to serve as a basis on which more modern models and theories have been established. This paper shows how major classical economists tackled the issue of technological change that contributed to the growth of a capitalist economy.The three economists, namely Smith, Ricardo and Marx place a lot of attention on the impact of accumulation of capital and technological change on profits. It is interesting to note that although they arrive at a conclusion that the general rate of profit would fall, their arguments which back up that claim differs in important characteristics. The essay is however limited to evaluating a hypothetical situation of one-good economies that are not well suited to examine the intricacies at hand.Nevertheless, it is distinctive that all these writers have, in their own capacities, contributed to explaining the dynamisms of a capitalist economy and the need to in crease labor productivity. The argument can be concluded by supporting the claim that these writers constituted of a coherent school of thought whose theories and ideas were more similar to each other and it isnt the case that their differences were more marked than what they had in common.Bibliography and referencesBhaduri, A. and Harris, D.1987. The complex dynamics of the simple Ricardian system. Quarterly Journal of Economics102,893902.Dmitriev, V.K. 1974. Economic Essays on Value, Competition and Utility, English translation of a collection of Dmitrievs essays published in 1904 in Russion, edited by M.D. Nuti, Cambridge Cambridge University Press. (Originally published in 1898)Eltis, W. 1984. The Classical Theory of Economic Growth, London MacmillanGaregnani, P. 1987. Surplus Approach to Value and Distribution, The impertinently Palgrave. A Dictionary of Economics, edited by J. Eatwell, M. Milgate and P. Newman, vol. 4, London Macmillan, pp. 560-74.Glyn, A.2006. Will Marx be proved right?Oxonomics1,136.Hicks, J. 1969. A Theory of Economic History, Oxford ClaerendonMarx, K. 1954. Capital, vol. I, capital of the Russian Federation Progress Publishers.Marx, K. 1959. Capital, vol. II, Moscow Progress PublishersMarx, K. 1969. Theories of Surplus Value, vol. 2, Moscow Progress Publishers.Marx, K. 1971. Theories of Surplus Value, vol. 3, Moscow Progress Publishers.Ricardo, D. 1951-73. The Works and Correspondence of David Ricardo, 11 volumes, edited by Piero Sraffa with the collaboration of Maurice H. Dobb, Cambridge Cambridge University press. In the essay his volumes are referred as Works, volume number page number.Schefold, B. 1976. Different Forms of Technical Progress, Economic Journal, 86 806-19Smith, A. 1976. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, two vols. In The Glasgow Edition of the Works and Correspondence of Adam Smith, Ed. R. H. Campbell and A. S. Skinner, Oxford Oxford University Press.Stigler, G.1958. Ricardo and the 9 3% labor theory of value.American Economic Review 48,35767.Sweezy, P.1942.The Theory of Capitalist Development.New YorkMonthly Review Press.1

1930-1940 Essay -- Essays Papers

1930-1940The 1930s brought a very turbulent time to the United States. As a result of the Stock Market Crash of 1929, the land was experiencing a severe depression. There were hard class divisions dividing the nation. People were either extremely rich or extremely poor. The middle class simply did not exist (Bondi 97). On March 4, 1933 Franklin Delano Roosevelt took office with the promise of hope and relief for struggling Americans. Roosevelt followed up his promise for help with the bran-new Deal, his plan to combat the depression. The New Deal involved the three Rs relief, recovery and reform. It included measures concerning banking, securities, industry, and agriculture (Bondi 97).Roosevelt won reelection in 1936 and the economy was on an upswing thanks to the New Deal. However, in 1937-1938, the economy began to waver again. At the end of the decade, employment rates went up thanks to federal jobs. These federal jobs included workers building roads, bridges, and public buildin gs (Bondi 97). In addition, the overdress of unemployment and the lack of job security brought on the rise of organized labor. When the Great Depression struck, only five percent of the workforce was unionized. However, when the decade ended that telephone number nearly tripled and over ten million workers in the United States belonged to a labor union (Brittanica).During the 1930s the world experienced many hardships just as the United States. The Great Depression was not only a problem in the United States, but it was a global problem. In nineteen thirty-two, sextette million people were unemployed in Germany and three million in Britain (Freeman 3). These depressions may have led to the increase in dictatorships. Both Hitler and Stalin came into power in the 1... ...measures to ensure that women and men sat on opposite sides of the classroom while attending class together. Again, the mingling of men and women was a great concern to the University (Schweikart 9-10).Edith Whart ons Roman Fever shows the perception of women in the 1930s. Women had just gained the right to vote, but in society the role of the woman had not changed much since the late 18 hundreds. Women were still expected to be proper and remain pure and innocent. Roman Fever portrays these feminine qualities. Roman Fever has many of the same qualities as henry James short story, Daisy Miller. Both are written about women who ignore the rules that society has placed on them. It seems Edith Wharton was commenting on women who sinned and the consequences that they will face. In the nineteen thirties, women were to be proper and stay away from such dangers.

Change Within Characters in Sophocles Antigone Essay examples -- Soph

Change Within Characters in Sophocles AntigoneAntigone is about how King Creon rules that Polynices the traitor isnot to be buried, and his babe Antigone defies the order. She iscaught, and sentenced by Creon to be buried alive - even though she isbetrothed to his son Haemon. After the blind prophet Tiresias provesthat the gods ar on Antigones side, Creon changes his mind - but toolate. He goes first to bury Polynices, but Antigone has already hangedherself. When Creon arrives at the tomb, Haemon attacks him and thenkills himself. When the news of their death is reported, Creons wifeEurydice takes her own life. Creon is alone in his life, rise ofguilt.The major characters in Antigone in my opinion are Antigone and Creon.Both undergo truly major dramatic changes in their life. Antigoneschanges are mainly associate to the themes of the position of women as aGreek and the theme of the individual versus the state and divine lawversus human law. Creons changes are mainly linked to t he themesmoral sense versus Law and the threat of tyranny. Both of their changesto themselves also inflict a change on the other. Both also undergochanges because of their pride and what actions it causes them to do. dress and its effects are a central part of Antigone. It is a traitdespised by the gods, who bring suffering to the proud, but to theGreek mind pride is also a part of greatness. Both Antigone and Creonare incredibly proud, making it impossible for either one of them toback down once they have taken a stand. Pride is part of what makesAntigone heroic. Creon realizes that in the end when he is completelyalone in his life because everyone is dead. His pride had caused himto lose everyth... ... despicable if the order of the state demandsit. Antigones insistence on her desire in face of state power bringsruin into Thebes and to Creon specifically. With the death of hisfamily, Creon is left utterly alone in the palace. His throne evenrobs him of his mourning, the king and his tempo sadly shuttling off toa cabinet meeting after the announcement of the familys deaths.Antigone and Creon both undergo many changes to their personality,their beliefs, and their ways of living. But in the end it is plainlyCreon who has the ability to change his life and keep on living it ina more respectable and more understanding way. But Creon has to livewith the deaths and his fatal mistakes that he has made. Antigone hasa very short time to adapt to the changes in her life but she does notsee much point because she has been sentenced to a very slow death.

Pacifism & Conscientious Objection :: essays research papers fc

During the 20th century America has been involved in many conflicts that have led to war or the taking up of arms against other humans and nations. Although the vast majority of Americans have blindly accepted these actions throughout the century, more and more people are seeing war as morally impairment. Reasons for this epiphany are based off of a variety of things and encompass many other aspects related to war and violent death examples include due to moral and ethical principles, objection to war due to strong religious beliefs, the objection to violence due to the same ideals above, objection to the governments social function of force, and the objection to the use of weapons of mass destruction. Many of the core beliefs of conscientious objection derive from the teachings or beliefs of pacifism. pacificism has been a system of thinking and living for hundreds of years, and, in the 20th century many objection and pacifistic movements have sprung up all around the nation, more so than in any other time. Pacifism and conscientious objection in the United States have been moral issues that have fallen under question due to the belief of the participants that killing, war, and the act of violence is wrong and immoral.To begin to understand the workings of conscientious objection, it is important have a clear view of what pacifism is. The roots of pacifism reach back for literally hundreds of years. Practically all of the messiahs of all the chief religions of the world preached for pacifism including Allah and Muhammad from the Muslim Koran, Jesus and God from the Bible used by Catholics, Christens, and Quakers, and in the Jewish Torah. separate teachers of pacifism include Plato and Socrates. The moral and ethical principles of pacifism and conscientious objection have been present throughout United States history. There have been known objectors in every single war that America has been somehow involved, Including The French and Indian War, The Revol utionary War, The War of 1812, The Civil War, The Spanish American War, The Mexican American War, universe of discourse War One, World War Two, The Korean War, The Vietnam War, The Persian Gulf War, and into the ongoing War Against "Terror". Pacifism is the refusal to participate in any violent actions and or killing. This can be derived from the belief that all life is sacred and that it is morally wrong to take another persons life.

Ursula K. LeGuins The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas Essay -- America

Ursula K. LeGuins The Ones Who take the air Away from OmelasWorks Cited Not IncludedIn The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas, Ursula K. LeGuin makes use of colorful descriptions and hypothetical situations to draw us into a surrealistic universe of discourse that illustrates how unsympathetic society can be. LeGuins ambiguity of how the story allow for go is purposeful she cunningly makes her case that each of us handles the undesirable aspects of the world we live in differently, and that ultimately, happiness is relative. As we explore this peculiar world of Omelas, we are prompted to ask ourselves, What do I think is the perfect society? What is happiness to me?, and most importantly (to me), Would I walk away from Omelas? While we explore these questions, LeGuin expects that we provide discover how far we are willing to go to indulge our need for comfort at the expense and pain of others. How important is our material possessions and comforts? maybe it would be best if you ima gined it as your fancy bids, assuming it will rise to the occasion, for certainly I cannot suit you all(1264), LeGuin invites us to take grapheme in what at first seems to be a surrealistic trip through Omelas -- to explore our own Omelas. To partake as the main character in this utopia, this urban center of odd joy we are urged on by a climaxing tempo of colorful passages and lush scenery, Far off to the north and west the mountains stood up half(a) encircling Omelas on her bay (1264), and jubilant music and dance, In other streets the music beat faster, a shimmering of gong and tambourine, and the people went dancing, the procession was a dance (1264). One can almost hear the small fryrens laughter, their high calls rising like the swallows crossing flights over t... ...at has become desensitized to the pain and suffering of others. LeGuin creates a paradox by offering us the mercy that is not extended to the child. We are given a chance to escape from Omelas. Will we w alk away from Omelas and leave the child to suffer, or stay and become the people of Omelas, with their blank empty smiles?The place they go towards is a place even less imaginable to most of us than the city of happiness (1267). We dont know where the place is that these people escape to. Their fate is uncertain, but for those who leave, it is better to go into the unknown than to remain and be a part of this uncaring, indifferent society. LeGuins short fiction Those Who Walk Away From Omelas suggests to us that it is possible to break away from our learned behavior and take on a new, more caring approach to each other, and the world around us.